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Basic English tenses and everything related to verbs (with audio).

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• Present simple. Verb "to be".

Positive		Negative
I am	I'm	I am not	I'm not
you are	you're	you are not	you aren't
he is	he's	he is not	he isn't
she is	she's	she is not	she isn't
it is	it's	it is not	it isn't
we are	we're	we are not	we aren't
you are	you're	you are not	you aren't
they are	they're	they are not	they aren't
Question
Am I?	Yes, I am.	No I'm not
Are you?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Is he?	Yes, he is.	No, he isn't.
Is she?	Yes, she is.	No, she isn't.
Is it?	Yes, it is.	No, it isn't.
Are we?	Yes, we are.	No, we aren't.
Are you?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Are they?	Yes, they are.	No, they aren't.


We use the present simple to talk about:
habits or things we do repeatedly
 I go to school every day.
something that is true in general
 John and Mark live in a small town.
• Present simple. Verb "to work".

Positive	Negative
I work	I don't work
you work	you don't work
he works	he doesn't work
she works	she doesn't work
it works	it doesn't work
we work	we don't work
you work	you don't work
they work	they don't work
Question
Do I work?	Yes, I do.	No, I don't.
Do you work?	Yes, you do.	No, you don't.
Does he work?	Yes, he does.	No, he doesn't.
Does she work?	Yes, she does.	No, she doesn't.
Does it work?	Yes, it does.	No, it doesn't.
Do we work?	Yes, we do.	No, we don't.
Do you work?	Yes, you do.	No, you don't.
Do they work?	Yes, they do.	No, they don't.


Spelling of the third person singular.
Most verbs ad -s in the third person singular.
 talk -> talks
 write -> writes
Verbs ending in -s, -ch, -sh add -es
 brush -> brushes
 finish -> finishes
Verbs ending in a consonant + -y change -y into -ies
 cry -> cries
But verbs ending in a vowel + -y just add -s
 buy -> buys
For verbs do and go we add -es
 go -> goes
 do -> does
We use the present simple to talk about:
habits or things we do repeatedly
 I go to school every day.
something that is true in general
 John and Mark live in a small town.
• Present simple. Verb "to have".

Positive	Negative
I have	I don't have
you have	you don't have
he has	he doesn't have
she has	she doesn't have
it has	it doesn't have
we have	we don't have
you have	you don't have
they have	they don't have
Question
Do I have?	Yes, I do.	No, I don't.
Do you have?	Yes, you do.	No, you don't.
Does he have?	Yes, he does.	No, he doesn't.
Does she have?	Yes, she does.	No, she doesn't.
Does it have?	Yes, it does.	No, it doesn't.
Do we have?	Yes, we do.	No, we don't.
Do you have?	Yes, you do.	No, you don't.
Do they have?	Yes, they do.	No, they don't.


We use the present simple to talk about:
habits or things we do repeatedly
 I go to school every day.
something that is true in general
 John and Mark live in a small town.
• Present continuous. Verb "to work".

Positive	Negative
I am working	I'm not working
you are working	you aren't working
he is working	he isn't working
she is working	she isn't working
it is working	it isn't working
we are working	we aren't working
you are working	you aren't working
they are working	they aren't working
Question
Am I working?	Yes, I am.	No, I'm not.
Are you working?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Is he working?	Yes, he is.	No, he isn't.
Is she working?	Yes, she is.	No, she isn't.
Is it working?	Yes, it is.	No, it isn't.
Are we working?	Yes, we are.	No, we aren't.
Are you working?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Are they working?	Yes, they are.	No, they aren't.


Spelling rules:
Most verbs just add -ing.  read -> reading
Verbs ending in -e accept -ing after dropping -e.  write -> writing
Most verbs ending in one vowel + one consonant, double the final consonant.  plan -> planning
Verbs ending in -ie change it to -y.  die -> dying
Two-syllable or three-syllable verbs with stress on the last syllable and ending in vowel + one consonant, double the final consonant.  submit -> submitting
But if there is no stress on the last syllable, we do not double the final consonant.  listen -> listening
Verbs have two syllables and end in -l, double the final consonant.  travel -> travelling. But: traveling (US)

We use the present continuous to talk about:
Something happening at the moment of speaking or in the present period of time:
 Look! John is reading a book. - It's happening now.
 We are studying geometry this week. - It's happening in the present period of time, it could be a day, a week, a year, anything really.
Something that we have planned for the future:
 Mike is visiting his granny tomorrow. - He has thought about it carefully and really wants to visit her.

There are some verbs we don't usually use in the continuous form. They are so-called stative verbs, they are not associated with actions.
Verbs describing mental states, liking/disliking, connected with possession, emotion verbs, abstract verbs.
 to be, to know, to understand, to think, to recognize, to want, to like, to dislike, to see, to hear, to believe, to have, to own, to belong, to possess, to love, to hate, to fear, to envy and etc.
But: to think only in the meaning to guess, to have only in the meaning to own/possess.
• Compare: Present simple and Present continuous.
Let's look at the difference between using Present simple and Present continuous.
 I help my father in his garage every day.  We do something regularly.
 I'm helping my dad in his garage at the moment.  I'm doing something now.
Very similar sentences:
 Do you go to the swimming pool twice a week?  We do something regularly.
 Are you walking to the swimming pool?  Something is happening now.
More similar sentences:
 I don't have any meals at school, I eat at home before and after school.  We do something regularly.
 I'm not eating now, I'm not hungry.  Something is happening now.
But:
 I have a glass of milk every morning.  It happens regularly, and it's absolutely normal thing for people around.
 He's having a glass of strong alcohol every morning.  It happens regularly, but I find it weird, people mustn't do it. It such case I use present continuous tense for actions that happen regularly.
 If I think, that it's an absolutely normal thing to do, I use present simple tense. He has a glass of strong alcohol every morning.

• Future simple. Verb "to be".

Positive	Negative
I will be	I won't be
you will be	you won't be
he will be	he won't be
she will be	she won't be
it will be	it won't be
we will be	we won't be
you will be	you won't be
they will be	they won't be
Question
Will I be?	Yes, I will.	No, I won't.
Will you be?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will he be?	Yes, he will.	No, he won't.
Will she be?	Yes, she will.	No, she won't.
Will it be?	Yes, it will.	No, it won't.
Will we be?	Yes, we will.	No, we won't.
Will you be?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will they be?	Yes, they will.	No, they won't.


We use the future simple to say what we expect to happen:
 There will be a lot of people. - I just think so.
Also when we decide to do something at the time of speaking:
 It's hot here. I'll open the window.
We often use it with I think:
 I think Russia will win.
• Future simple. Verb "to work".

Positive	Negative
I will work	I won't work
you will work	you won't work
he will work	he won't work
she will work	she won't work
it will work	it won't work
we will work	we won't work
you will work	you won't work
they will work	they won't work
Question
Will I work?	Yes, I will.	No, I won't.
Will you work?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will he work?	Yes, he will.	No, he won't.
Will she work?	Yes, she will.	No, she won't.
Will it work?	Yes, it will.	No, it won't.
Will we work?	Yes, we will.	No, we won't.
Will you work?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will they work?	Yes, they will.	No, they won't.


We use the future simple to say what we expect to happen:
 There will be a lot of people. - I just think so.
Also when we decide to do something at the time of speaking:
 It's hot here. I'll open the window.
We often use it with I think:
 I think Russia will win.

There is a big difference in using will and going to.
 We'll spend a lot of time queuing when visiting the shopping centre on Sunday. - We expect it to happen.
 They are going to book their holiday in a place called Alanya. - They are intending/planning to do it.
• Compare: Future simple and Present continuous.
Let's look at the difference between using Future simple and Present continuous.
 I guess I will buy a new car.  I'm not really sure, maybe I will do it.
 You know, we have thought a lot about it, and we are buying a new car, as our old one is nearly broken.  We are also talking about future, but in this case we have thought a lot about our purchase.
Very similar sentences:
 It's very hot here, I will open the window.  I have decided to do it right now without thinking too much.
 I am visiting all the shops in Oxford Street tomorrow.  It's also about the future. This is something, I have thought a lot about, not a spontaneous desire.
More similar sentences:
 Will you go to the cinema with us? No, I won't, I'm visiting my parents.  We are talking about going to the cinema, but this was not planned before in any way.
 Are you going to the cinema with us? Yes, I am, you called me yesterday, and I've decided to go.  We are also talking about going to the cinema, but in this case, the person had time to think about it.

• Future continuous. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I will be writing	I won't be writing
you will be writing	you won't be writing
he will be writing	he won't be writing
she will be writing	she won't be writing
it will be writing	it won't be writing
we will be writing	we won't be writing
you will be writing	you won't be writing
they will be writing	they won't be writing
Question
will I be writing?	Yes, I will.	No, I won't.
will you be writing?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
will he be writing?	Yes, he will.	No, he won't.
will she be writing?	Yes, she will.	No, she won't.
will it be writing?	Yes, it will.	No, it won't.
will we be writing?	Yes, we will.	No, we won't.
will you be writing?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
will they be writing?	Yes, they will.	No, they won't.


We use the future continuous to talk about:
actions in progress at a certain time in the future:
 I'll be working on my project at seven o'clock tomorrow.
• Compare: Future simple and Future continuous.
Let's look at the difference between using Future simple and Future continuous.
 I think I will read this book.  I'm not 100% sure, maybe not.
 I' ll be reading this book the whole evening tomorrow.  It's a long-term action at a particular time in the future.
Very similar sentences:
 I hope, it will be a nice day tomorrow, and we'll go fishing.  I just guess, I can't give any guarantee, maybe it will be raining.
 When you come to me in the evening, I will be fishing in the local pond.  Again we are talking about a long-term action at a particular time in the future.
More similar sentences:
 What will you be doing at 6 o'clock in the evening? I'll be listening to the radio.  We are expecting some long-term action at a particular time in the future.
 Will you write that letter? Yes, I will.  Here, we are expecting some complete action in the future to be done, we are not interested for how long and when it will be done.

• Past simple. Verb "to be".

Positive	Negative
I was	I was not	I wasn't
you were	you were not	you weren't
he was	he was not	he wasn't
she was	she was not	she wasn't
it was	it was not	it wasn't
we were	we were not	we weren't
you were	you were not	you weren't
they were	they were not	they weren't
Question
Was I?	Yes, I was.	No I wasn't
Were you?	Yes, you were.	No, you weren't.
Was he?	Yes, he was.	No, he wasn't.
Was she?	Yes, she was.	No, she wasn't.
Was it?	Yes, it was.	No, it wasn't.
Were we?	Yes, we were.	No, we weren't.
Were you?	Yes, you were.	No, you weren't.
Were they?	Yes, they were.	No, they weren't.


We use the past simple to talk about:
a finished action or state in the past. It doesn't matter whether it happened once or many times:
 His father died more than twenty years ago.
 They lived in the countryside those days.
• Past simple. Verb "to work".

Positive	Negative
I worked	I didn't work
you worked	you didn't work
he worked	he didn't work
she worked	she didn't work
it worked	it didn't work
we worked	we didn't work
you worked	you didn't work
they worked	they didn't work
Question
Did I work?	Yes, I did.	No, I didn't.
Did you work?	Yes, you did.	No, you didn't.
Did he work?	Yes, he did.	No, he didn't.
Did she work?	Yes, she did.	No, she didn't.
Did it work?	Yes, it did.	No, it didn't.
Did we work?	Yes, we did.	No, we didn't.
Did you work?	Yes, you did.	No, you didn't.
Did they work?	Yes, they did.	No, they didn't.


We use the past simple to talk about a finished action or state in the past. It doesn't matter whether it happened once or many times:
 His father died more than twenty years ago.
 They lived in the countryside those days.
For regular verbs we just add -ed to the infinitive in the positive form.
But most verbs are irregular and you have to remember their past forms.

Spelling of regular verbs.
Most regular verbs add -ed to the infinitive:
 liked, booked, played
One syllable verbs ending in one vowel and one consonant double the consonant:
 stopped, tapped, stepped, stirred
Verbs ending in a consonant + -y change -y to -ied:
 carried, fried, studied
Verbs ending in -e drop -e and add -ed:
 hoped, dated, dined, smiled

Past simple with ago.
Two hours ago means two hours before now.
 I came from Italy one week ago.
 John left England one year ago.

• Past simple. Verb "to have".

Positive	Negative
I had	I didn't have
you had	you didn't have
he had	he didn't have
she had	she didn't have
it had	it didn't have
we had	we didn't have
you had	you didn't have
they had	they didn't have
Question
Did I have?	Yes, I did.	No, I didn't.
Did you have?	Yes, you did.	No, you didn't.
Did he have?	Yes, he did.	No, he didn't.
Did she have?	Yes, she did.	No, she didn't.
Did it have?	Yes, it did.	No, it didn't.
Did we have?	Yes, we did.	No, we didn't.
Did you have?	Yes, you did.	No, you didn't.
Did they have?	Yes, they did.	No, they didn't.


We use the past simple to talk about finished action or state in the past. It doesn't matter whether it happened once or many times:
 His father died more than twenty years ago.
 They lived in the countryside those days.
For regular verbs we just add -ed to the infinitive in the positive form.
But most verbs are irregular and you have to remember their past forms.
• Past continuous. Verb "to work".

Positive	Negative
I was working	I wasn't working
you were working	you weren't working
he was working	he wasn't working
she was working	she wasn't working
it was working	it wasn't working
we were working	we weren't working
you were working	you weren't working
they were working	they weren't working
Question
Was I working?	Yes, I was.	No, I wasn't.
Were you working?	Yes, you were.	No, you weren't.
Was he working?	Yes, he was.	No, he wasn't.
Was she working?	Yes, she was.	No, she wasn't.
Was it working?	Yes, it was.	No, it wasn't.
Were we working?	Yes, we were.	No, we weren't.
Were you working?	Yes, you were.	No, you weren't.
Were they working?	Yes, they were.	No, they weren't.


We use the past continuous to talk about:
actions in progress at a certain time in the past:
 I was walking along the street at 7.30 pm that day.
quite often we use it to describe the background situation of the story or when another event interrupts the longer action in the past continuous:
 I was dancing the whole evening. But then my partner left.
 We we walking along the street when the rain broke.
• Compare: Past simple and Past continuous.
Let's look at the difference between using Past simple and Past continuous.
 They managed to fulfil their project last week.  A complete action in the past and stated when it happened.
 They were finishing their project the whole evening yesterday.  It's a long-term action at a particular time in the past.
Very similar sentences:
 He was standing near his house when I saw him.  It's clear from the contest that the action is long and in the past.
 He was walking along the street and finally stood near the entrance to the shop.  It's clear that stood is a short action in the past.
More similar sentences:
 What was he watching yesterday when I met him? He was watching the sunset.  A long-term action in the past.
 Did you see me when I was passing nearby? Yes, I did.  A short action in the past.

• Present perfect. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I have written	I haven't written
you have written	you haven't written
he has written	he hasn't written
she has written	she hasn't written
it has written	it hasn't written
we have written	we haven't written
you have written	you haven't written
they have written	they haven't written
Question
Have I written?	Yes, I have.	No, I haven't.
Have you written?	Yes, you have.	No, you haven't.
Has he written?	Yes, he has.	No, he hasn't.
Has she written?	Yes, she has.	No, she hasn't.
Has it written?	Yes, it has.	No, it hasn't.
Have we written?	Yes, we have.	No, we haven't.
Have you written?	Yes, you have.	No, you haven't.
Have they written?	Yes, they have.	No, they haven't.


When using the present perfect there's always connection with now:
 I've met Mike already. - I know him.
We also use it when talking about a period of time that continues from the past to the present:
 We have been to Moscow for three weeks.
We also use the present perfect with today / this week / this month / this morning etc. when periods of time are not finished yet:
 I've eaten four sandwiches today.
Very often we use present perfect tense with for and since.
We use for with a period of time and since with a point of time.
 They have lived in Moscow for two years.
 Ann has struggled to find a job since last August, but she hasn't found it yet.
We also often use just, already and yet with present perfect tense.
We use just and already in affirmative sentences. We put them between auxiliary verbs and the past participle.
 They have just arrived.
 Jonathan has already read the whole book.
We use yet in negative and interrogative sentences. We put it at the end of a sentence.
 The train hasn't arrived yet.
 Have you visited the Russian museum yet?
• Compare: Present perfect and Past simple.
Let's look at the difference between using Present Perfect and Past simple.
 We have been to London.  It's important that we have visited London, it doesn't matter when, may be a few years ago.
 We were in London last spring.  If we mention when something happened, we use Past Simple.
Very similar sentences:
 I haven't done this job yet.  Again, it's not important when I started, but by now it's still unfinished.
 I didn't mail a letter yesterday, I forgot.  Again, we mention when the action happened, and we use Past simple.
More similar sentences:
 Have you ever visited Thailand?  It doesn't matter when, just in a life time, by now.
 Did you visit Thailand last winter?  We are interested when something happened, and we use Past simple.

• Present perfect continuous. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I have been writing	I have not been writing
you have been writing	you have not been writing
he has been writing	he has not been writing
she has been writing	she has not been writing
it has been writing	it has not been writing
we have been writing	we have not been writing
you have been writing	you have not been writing
they have been writing	they have not been writing
Question
Have I been writing?	Yes, I have.	No, I haven't.
Have you been writing?	Yes, you have.	No, you haven't.
Has he been writing?	Yes, he has.	No, he hasn't.
Has she been writing?	Yes, she has.	No, she hasn't.
Has it been writing?	Yes, it has.	No, it hasn't.
Have we been writing?	Yes, we have.	No, we haven't.
Have you been writing?	Yes, you have.	No, you haven't.
Have they been writing?	Yes, they have.	No, they haven't.


We use the present perfect continuous when we talk about actions that started in the past and continue up to now:
 I've been working as a teacher for twenty years.
Very often we use present perfect continuous tense with for and since.
We use for with a period of time and since with a point of time.
 They have been doing this project for two months.
 Jorge has been travelling around the world since last April.
 But: I have been working here for all my life. We don't use for and since with phrases like all day, all week, etc.
• Compare: Present perfect continuous and Present continuous
Let's look at the difference between using Present perfect continuous and Present continuous.
 We have been refurbishing our flat for two weeks already.  It's important, that we started doing something some time ago and still doing it.
 We are refurbishing our flat this week.  We are doing something the current period of time.
Very similar sentences:
 They haven't been shopping since 10 o'clock as the electricity was gone in a supermarket.  Again, it's important when the action started, but by now it's still unfinished.
 I' m not shopping now, I'm already walking home.  Something, I'm doing at the moment / this period of time.
More similar sentences:
 What have you been doing for the last 15 minutes?  The action lasts for some time up to now.
 What are you doing now?  The action happens at the moment.
More:
 What have you been doing this week?  I want to know, what you have been doing since the beginning of the week till now.
 What are you doing this week?  I want to know, what you are doing this week. Because usually you do something different, or you have different tasks different weeks. And I want to know about this week.

• Past perfect. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I had written	I hadn't written
you had written	you hadn't written
he had written	he hadn't written
she had written	she hadn't written
it had written	it hadn't written
we had written	we hadn't written
you had written	you hadn't written
they had written	they hadn't written
Question
had I written?	Yes, I had.	No, I hadn't.
had you written?	Yes, you had.	No, you hadn't.
had he written?	Yes, he had.	No, he hadn't.
had she written?	Yes, she had.	No, she hadn't.
had it written?	Yes, it had.	No, it hadn't.
had we written?	Yes, we had.	No, we hadn't.
had you written?	Yes, you had.	No, you hadn't.
had they written?	Yes, they had.	No, they hadn't.


We use the past perfect when an action happened before another one in the past:
 She had finished her work and she was on her way to the local cafe.
Also we use the past perfect when an action happened by a particular time in the past:
 She had finished her work by five o'clock yesterday.
• Compare: Past perfect and Past simple.
Let's look at the difference between using Past perfect and Past simple.
 They had reached their destination by early evening.  It was done by a particular time - by the evening.
 They reached their destination in the evening.  It was done in the evening, not by a particular time.
Very similar sentences:
 She had baked a cake and ten minutes later left her flat.  We use Past perfect when talking about an action happened before another action in Past simple.
 She put on her new coat and left her flat.  We use Past simple in both cases, since they are actions that occur one after the other, just in a row.
More similar sentences:
 Had they solved the problem before he came?  We use Past perfect when talking about an action happened before another action in Past simple.
 Did they solve the problem last week?  We use Past simple as we are talking about a completed action at some point in the past.

• Past perfect continuous. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I had been writing	I hadn't been writing
you had been writing	you hadn't been writing
he had been writing	he hadn't been writing
she had been writing	she hadn't been writing
it had been writing	it hadn't been writing
we had been writing	we hadn't been writing
you had been writing	you hadn't been writing
they had been writing	they hadn't been writing
Question
had I been writing?	Yes, I had.	No, I hadn't.
had you been writing?	Yes, you had.	No, you hadn't.
had he been writing?	Yes, he had.	No, he hadn't.
had she been writing?	Yes, she had.	No, she hadn't.
had it been writing?	Yes, it had.	No, it hadn't.
had we been writing?	Yes, we had.	No, we hadn't.
had you been writing?	Yes, you had.	No, you hadn't.
had they been writing?	Yes, they had.	No, they hadn't.


We use the past perfect continuous when an action happened before another one in the past:
 Finally I went to bed. I had been working hard all day.
Also we use the past perfect continuous when an action happened by a particular time in the past:
 We had been working outside for a couple of hours until it started to rain.
• Compare: Past perfect continuous and Past continuous.
Let's look at the difference between using Past perfect continuous and Past continuous.
 I had been shopping till she stopped me.  I had been doing something by a particular time - before somebody stopped me.
 I was shopping the whole evening yesterday.  Just a long action in the past.
Very similar sentences:
 We had been waiting for too long before we finally decided to go.  A long action before another action in the past tense.
 We were waiting from two till three o'clock.  A long action in the past.
More similar sentences:
 Had they been driving for more then two hours before they reached the shore?  Again a long action before another action in the past tense.
 Were they driving the whole morning yesterday?  One more long action in the past.

• Future perfect. Verb "to write".

Positive	Negative
I will have written	I will not have written
you will have written	you will not have written
he will have written	he will not have written
she will have written	she will not have written
it will have written	it will not have written
we will have written	we will not have written
you will have written	you will not have written
they will have written	they will not have written
Question
Will I have written?	Yes, I will.	No, I won't.
Will you have written?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will he have written?	Yes, he will.	No, he won't.
Will she have written?	Yes, she will.	No, she won't.
Will it have written?	Yes, it will.	No, it won't.
Will we have written?	Yes, we will.	No, we won't.
Will you have written?	Yes, you will.	No, you won't.
Will they have written?	Yes, they will.	No, they won't.


We use the future perfect when an action happens by a particular time in the future:
 She will have done her homework by the time you come home.
 Will you have done this work by next Monday?
• Compare: Future perfect and Future simple.
Let's look at the difference between using Future perfect and Future simple.
 They will have prepared everything by six o'clock.  Something will be done by a particular time in the future.
 They will leave the room around six o'clock.  Something will be done at around some time in the future, I think so.
Very similar sentences:
 They won't have it done in time.  Something won't be done by a particular time in the future.
 They won't do it.  Something won't be done in the future, I guess so. We are not talking about any particular time, it has to be done by.
More similar sentences:
 Will you have taken me home by six o'clock?  I want to be sure that somebody will take me home by a particular time in the future.
 Will you take me home today?  I want to know whether you are able to take me home today, I don't care about any particular time.

• Passive Voice.
The difference between an active verb and a passive verb is:
an active verb is used to say what the subject does.
 I write this book every day.
a passive verb is used to say what happens to the subject.
 This book is written every day.

Passive voice can be used in different tenses:
Present simple passive.
 Books are read every day.
Past simple passive.
 This book was read yesterday.
Future simple passive.
 The book will be read tomorrow.
Present continuous passive:
 The report is being written now.
Past continuous passive.
 The report was being written at 3 pm yesterday.
Present perfect passive.
 The report has been written.
Past perfect passive.
 The report had been written by 3 pm yesterday.
Future perfect passive.
 The report will have been written by 3 pm tomorrow.


Now let's conjugate "to take" in Present simple passive.
Positive	Negative
I am taken	I'm not taken
you are taken	you aren't taken
he is taken	he isn't taken
she is taken	she isn't taken
it is taken	it isn't taken
we are taken	we aren't taken
you are taken	you aren't taken
they are taken	they aren't taken
Question
Am I taken?	Yes, I am.	No, I'm not.
Are you taken?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Is he taken?	Yes, he is.	No, he isn't.
Is she taken?	Yes, she is.	No, she isn't.
Is it taken?	Yes, it is.	No, it isn't.
Are we taken?	Yes, we are.	No, we aren't.
Are you taken?	Yes, you are.	No, you aren't.
Are they taken?	Yes, they are.	No, they aren't.

There are some reasons for using the passive.
When the action is more important than the person who does it:
 This whisky was produced in Scotland.
When something is done by people in general.
 This brand is known to the most people in the world.
When we don't know who's behind the action.
 Millions of cars are produced in the world every year.
If we want to say who is the "hero" behind the action we use by.
 These shoes are produced by the local factory.

• Compare: Active voice and Passive voice.
Let's look at the difference between Active voice and Passive voice.
 I wash my car once a week.  Active, there is a subject "I", who does some job.
 My car is washed once a week.  Passive, in this case the subject "car" does nothing itself, somebody, not important who, does the job.
Very similar sentences:
 I am baking a cake now.  Active, the subject "I" does the job.
 A cake is being baked now.  Passive, the subject a cake does nothing itself.
More similar sentences:
 They have visited New York recently.  Active, the subject "they" has done the job.
 New York has been visited recently.  Passive, the subject "New York" has done nothing itself.

• Future in the past.
We use the future in the past to describe our ideas in the past when we thought that something would happen in the future. The difference with future tenses is that we change will to would.
 I knew that John would buy tickets.
 John told me he would send a letter.
 I was sure that job would be done.
Very often we use the future in the past in reported speech.
For example first is direct speech. John told me yesterday: 'I will buy tickets for the whole team.'
And now reported (indirect speech). John told me yesterday that he would buy tickets for the whole team.


Now let's conjugate "to work" in the simple future-in-the-past tense.

Positive	Negative
I would work	I wouldn't work
you would work	you wouldn't work
he would work	he wouldn't work
she would work	she wouldn't work
it would work	it wouldn't work
we would work	we wouldn't work
you would work	you wouldn't work
they would work	they wouldn't work
Question
would I work?	Yes, I would.	No, I wouldn't.
would you work?	Yes, you would.	No, you wouldn't.
would he work?	Yes, he would.	No, he wouldn't.
would she work?	Yes, she would.	No, she wouldn't.
would it work?	Yes, it would.	No, it wouldn't.
would we work?	Yes, we would.	No, we wouldn't.
would you work?	Yes, you would.	No, you wouldn't.
would they work?	Yes, they would.	No, they wouldn't.

• Zero conditional.
We use the zero conditional to talk about scientific facts and general truths.
Look at the sentences below:
 When you boil water, it evaporates.
 If you put sugar in your tea, it becomes sweet.
We use the present simple tense in both parts of the sentences.

• First conditional.
We use the first conditional to talk about something that is likely to happen in the future.
Look at the sentences below:
 If I save up some money, I will go on holiday to Spain. This is a real situation.
 If I study this rule well, I'll get a good mark tomorrow. Also a real situation.
 If he doesn't do his homework, he will get a bad mark.
We use the present simple tense in the if-clause of the sentence and will('ll) in the main part.
It's possible to use other future forms or modal verbs in the main clause:
 If it rains in the evening, we might stay at home.
 If Mike buys tickets, we are going to watch this film.
The if-clause can come at the end or at the beginning of the sentence. When it comes at the end, we don't use a comma.
 We'll go to the theatre tomorrow evening if Mike comes to us by 6 pm. I'm expecting him to come.
We also use present tenses after when, as soon as, before, after, etc. when talking about things that are likely to happen in the future.
 I'll let you know when our plane lands.
 Before you tell me anything, I want you to know that I have always been honest with you.
 I will call you back as soon as we reach the city.

• Second conditional.
We use the second conditional to talk about something that is unlikely to happen.
Look at the sentences below:
 If John saved up enough money, he would buy a nice house in Spain. This is an unlikely situation for him.
 If Mike helped me to study this subject, I'd pass my exam well. Buy I don't think Mike is going to help me.
We use the past simple tense in the if-clause of the sentence and would('d) in the main part.
The if-clause can come at the end or at the beginning of the sentence. When it comes at the end, we don't use a comma.
 Lisa would study in the USA next year if she got an invitation from the university. But it's unlikely for her as she's bad at math.

• Compare: First conditional and Second conditional.
Look at the difference: First conditional and Second conditional.
 He will buy a new mobile if he saves up some money.  First conditional. It's a real situation. It's not a big deal to save up money for a new mobile. We are talking about future.
 He would buy a new house if he saved up enough money.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. I know that he can't save up enough funds to buy a house.
Very similar sentences:
 I will pass my exam well if he helps me with my studies.  First conditional. It's a real situation. I know that he's going to help me. We are talking about future.
 I would pass my exam well if he helped me with my studies.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. I know that he's not going to help me.
More:
 If she gets some help from her parents, she will go on holiday to Jamaica.  First conditional. It's a real situation. I'm expecting her parents to help. We are talking about the future.
 If she won a lottery, she would go on holiday to Jamaica.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. Very few chances to win.
• Third conditional.
We use the third conditional to talk about imaginary hypothetical situations in the past.
Look at the sentences below:
 If I had met John yesterday morning, I would have warned him about the problem. But I didn't meet him yesterday.
 I would have helped Mike to fix his car last week if I hadn't been busy. But I was busy.
 John wouldn't have passed his exam last month if Mike hadn't helped him. But he did.
We use the past perfect tense in the if-clause of the sentence and would have + past participle in the main part.
The if-clause can come at the end or at the beginning of the sentence. When it comes at the end, we don't use a comma.

• Compare: Second conditional and Third conditional.
Look at the difference: Second conditional and Third conditional.
 He would buy a new house if he saved up enough money.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. I know that he can't save up enough funds to buy a house. We use past tenses, but we talk about the future.
 He would have bought and ice-cream on the way home if he had had any money.  Third conditional. We are talking about the past. It happened maybe yesterday, he just forgot to take his wallet. We use past perfect tenses and talk about the past.
Very similar sentences:
 I would pass my exam well if he helped me with my studies.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. I know that he's not going to help me. We use past tenses, but we talk about the future.
 I would have passed my exam well if he had helped me with my studies.  Third conditional. I passed my exam some time ago and my friend didn't help me. We use past perfect tenses and talk about the past.
More:
 If she won a lottery, she would go on holiday to Jamaica.  Second conditional. It's an unreal situation in the future. Very few chances to win. We use past tenses, but we talk about the future.
 If she had got some help from her parents, she would have gone on holiday to Jamaica.  Third conditional. We are talking about the past. She maybe expected some help from her parents, but they didn't, they were in troubles themselves. We use past perfect tenses and talk about the past.
• I wish I knew... I wish I had known...
I wish I knew... is very similar to the second conditional.
 I wish I had enough money to buy a new car. But I don't have.
We use this form to say that we regret about something, it's not as we are expecting it to be.
After if and wish we usually use were instead of was:
 If I were you, I would go to the cafe with Catherine.
 I wish I were there with you.
Usually we don't use would after wish:
 I wish I had time to read that book. Not: I would have.
I wish I had known... is very similar to the third conditional.
 I wish I had known that you were sick. But I didn't know and couldn't visit you last week.
 Do you wish you had been with us last week? But you were not and can regret about it.
Normally we do not use would after wish but sometimes it's possible for actions but not situations:
 I wish John would go and buy some juice.

• Used to
We use "used to":
to talk about actions or something that happened regularly in the past but may be is not true now.
 He used to walk three miles to his office every day but he drives now.
for some thoughts, feelings in the past.
 I used to think that our planet is flat.
for some habits in the past.
 Mike used to have a cat called Lola.
 I used to drink a lot of milk but I don't like it anymore.
You can always replace used to with Past simple: Mike had a cat called Lola.
Positive form: I/you/he/she/we/they used to play games.
Negative form: I/you/he/she/we/they didn't use to play games.
Question form: Did I/you/he/she/we/they use to play games?
Sometimes we use would very similar to the past simple tense:
 When I was a small kid I would go to the river every day.
It's the same as:
 When I was a small kid I used to go to the river every day.

• List of irregular verbs

Verb	Past simple	Past participle
be	was/were	been
beat	beat	beaten
become	became	become
begin	began	begun
bend	bent	bent
bite	bit	bit
blow	blew	blown
break	broke	broken
bring	brought	brought
build	built	built
burn	burned/burnt	burned/burnt
burst	burst	burst
buy	bought	bought
can	could	been able
catch	caught	caught
choose	chose	chosen
come	came	come
cost	cost	cost
cut	cut	cut
dig	dug	dug
do	did	done
draw	drew	drown
dream	dreamed/dreamt	dreamed/dreamt
drink	drank	drunk
drive	drove	driven
eat	ate	eaten
fall	fell	fallen
feed	fed	fed
feel	felt	felt
fight	fought	fought
find	found	found
fly	flew	flown
forget	forgot	forgotten
forgive	forgave	forgiven
freeze	froze	frozen
get	got	got
give	gave	given
go	went	gone/been
grow	grew	grown
hang	hung	hanged/hung
have	had	had
hear	heard	heard
hide	hid	hid
hit	hit	hit
hold	held	held
hurt	hurt	hurt
keep	kept	kept
kneel	knelt	knelt
know	knew	known
lay	laid	laid
lead	led	led
learn	learned/learnt	learned/learnt
leave	left	left
lend	lent	lent
let	let	let
lie	lay	lain
light	lit	lit
lose	lost	lost
make	made	made
mean	meant	meant
meet	met	met
must	had to	had to
pay	paid	paid
put	put	put
read	read	read
ride	rode	ridden
ring	rang	rung
rise	rose	risen
run	ran	run
say	said	said
see	saw	seen
sell	sold	sold
send	sent	sent
set	set	set
shake	shook	shaken
shine	shone	shone
shoot	shot	shot
show	showed	shown
shut	shut	shut
sing	sang	sung
sink	sank	sunk
sit	sat	sat
sleep	slept	slept
slide	slid	slid
smell	smelled/smelt	smelled/smelt
speak	spoke	spoken
spend	spent	spent
spill	spilled/spilt	spilled/spilt
spoil	spoiled/spoilt	spoiled/spoilt
stand	stood	stood
steal	stole	stolen
stick	stuck	stuck
swim	swam	swum
take	took	taken
teach	taught	taught
tear	tore	torn
tell	told	told
think	thought	thought
throw	threw	thrown
understand	understood	understood
wake	woke	woken
wear	wore	worn
win	won	won
write	wrote	written

• Infinitive of purpose
Quite often we use infinitives to express why we do something.
 We are saving up money to buy our own flat.
 I would like to go to Greece to learn more about ancient architecture.
 Nicholas does his homework every day to archive good results in his final test at school.
Not:
 We are saving up money for to buy our own flat.
 I would like to go to Greece for learn more about ancient architecture.

• Question tags
We use question tags if we want to know whether something is true.
It's a question really, but in the main part of a sentence we use a direct order of words.
We use negative question tags after affirmative sentences and affirmative tags after negative sentences for all tenses.
 You are going to school, aren't you?
 They won't help us, will they?
Question tags can be used with literally any tense. There are two types of question tags:
Affirmative question tags.
 Our car hasn't broken, has it?
 We won't be late, will we?
Negative question tags
 Mike has finished his project, hasn't he?
 They travelled to Kiev last year, didn't they?

• Subject and object questions with who/what
There are two types of questions with who/what.
Who is the subject of the sentence. In this case we use the direct word order as in the affirmative sentence.
 Who is driving that very expensive car over there?
 What happened in that village when you visited them last year?
You see that there no auxiliary verbs in front of who/what when they are subjects of the sentences.
 Not: Is who driving that very expensive car over there?
 Not: Did what happen in that village when you wisited them last year?
Of course, if you replace who with any other word, the order of words will be the same as in an interrogative sentence.
 Is John driving that very expensive car over there?
Quite often who/what isn't the subject but the object of the sentence. In such cases the order of words is the same as in interrogative sentences.
 Who are you going to the cinema with? Who is the object and you is the subject of this sentence.
 What are they talking about? What is the object and they is the subject of this sentence.

• Modal verbs.
Modal verbs aren't used for actions, but as auxiliary verbs to express
ability: can, could.
 I can do it, I know how.  Mike could have helped us, just decided not to.
permission: may, can, could.
 May I open the window, please?  Can I borrow your mobile, please.  You could take it, I don't mind.  Nowadays there's not a big difference in using these verbs, but a few decades ago may was the right verb to ask for permission.
advice: should.
 I guess, you should brush your teeth twice a day.  You should try to eat less.
obligation: must.
 You must stay away of that place, it's too dangerous.
possibility: may, might, can, could.
 He might be late today.  That MP3 player might be very unreliable.
Some other modal verbs: shall, will, ought to.  Shall we go to the cinema?  That's what we ought to do.
Need could be used either as a modal verb or as a main verb.  You needn't worry, he's fine.

• Should, shouldn't, have to, must, can
should, shouldn't
We use should to say that it's a good idea to do something or the right thing to do.
 You should go the cinema in the evening, they show a really good movie there.
We use shouldn't to say that it isn't a good idea to do something or not the right thing to do.
 You shouldn't watch TV for half a day.
There are some other forms for giving advice.
 Try drinking less coke, and I'm sure you will lose weight.
 Why don't we go to the local cafe right now, we still have one hour before the lecture.


have to, don't have to, must, mustn't
Have to is stronger than should.
We use have to to say that something is necessary to do.
 You have to get to the airport by five o'clock, otherwise you gonna miss your plane.
We use don't have to to say that something is not necessary to do.
 You don't have to to take any pictures, Mike has already taken some.
Have to and must are very similar.
 They have to pay for themselves.
 They must pay for themselves.
But don't have to and mustn't are not the same.
 You don't have to enter that door. - There's nothing interesting there.
 You mustn't enter that door. - It's prohibited.


can, can't
We use them to talk about two different types of possibility.
 She can read and she can write but she can't sing. - Ability to do something.
 We can go home at 3 o'clock. They can't enter the shop till 8 am. - Permission to do something.

• Intentions and wishes
 I'm going to visit my granny tomorrow. Positive sentence.
 I'm not going to visit my granny tomorrow. Negative sentence.
 Am I going to visit my granny tomorrow? Interrogative sentence.
We use going to when talking about something we intend to do in the near or more distant future.

 I'm planning to to buy a new laptop. Positive sentence.
 I'm not planning to to buy a new laptop. Negative sentence.
 Am I planning to to buy a new laptop? Interrogative sentence.
Planning to is stronger than going to. We use planning to when we have thought more carefully about our plan and know how to achieve it.

 I'm buying a flat next week. Positive sentence.
 I'm not buying a flat next week. Negative sentence.
 Am I buying a flat next week? Interrogative sentence.
Using present continuous for intentions is even stronger than planning to and going to. In this case we have really decided to do something and it's hard to stop us.


 I would like to to visit Paris one day. Positive sentence.
 I wouldn't like to to visit Paris one day. Negative sentence.
 Would you like to to visit Paris one day? Interrogative sentence.
We use would like to to say what we want to do. But it's softer, not as strong and direct as want. We use it when we want to be polite.

 I would rather visit London. Positive sentence.
 I would rather not visit London. Negative sentence.
 Would you rather not visit London? Interrogative sentence. But it's not a popular form.
We use would rather to show that we prefer one thing to another one. We never use to in front of the infinitive after this form.
Also we don't use not with would rather in negative sentences.  Not: I wouldn't rather stay at home.

• Predictions with may/might, will definitely, etc.
may / might
We use them to express that something gonna/could happen in the future.
 We might visit you tomorrow.
 They may forget about our agreement.
The negative is may/might not.
 I might not be in time for lunch.
 They may not be able to meet you in Paris.
will probably
This phrase is stronger than may/might, we use it when we are fairly sure something will happen with a probability around 75%.
We put probably after will in positive sentences and before will in negative ones.
 I will probably buy a new mobile.
 Eric probably won't share with me everything he knows.
will definitely/certainly
This phrase is stronger than will probably, we use it when we are sure something will happen with a probability of almost 100%.
We put definitely/certainly after will in positive sentences and before will in negative ones.
 Nick will definitely go out with Kate.
 It certainly won't be snowing this evening.

• Gerunds
Gerunds are -ing forms of the verbs, but they act as nouns or pronouns.
We can use them as subjects of sentences:
 Driving long distances is really tiring.
 Reading books is something that inspires me.
We can use them as objects of sentences:
 Let's go dancing to the local club today.
 She finds walking around the overcrowded city centre really boring.
Quite often we use them after prepositions:
 She's mad about visiting that holiday resort.
 Lucy is keen on skating.
Very often we use gerunds in phrases about likes and dislikes.
 Tom can't stand eating garlic.
 He hates spending in the office the whole day.
 She doesn't like shopping in large malls.
 I'm crazy about playing computer games.
 We really enjoy spending time with our friends in Warsaw.
 I think everybody loves getting presents on their birthday.
 He's really keen on walking around our neighbourhood.
We don't use articles before gerunds.
 Not: He's really keen on the walking around our neighbourhood.

• Like doing and Would like to do
We use like to talk about things we enjoy.
 I like homemade ice cream from our local shop.
We use love with a very similar pattern. But love is a bit stronger than like.
 We love pies baked by our granny.
Very often we use like and love with gerunds and other verbs. Just look at the next sentences. They mean the same, but using gerunds instead of infinitives is more common.
 I like reading Japanese comics. This is more popular form.
 I like to read Japanese comics. This is less popular form.


We use would like when talking about things we want. It's not as direct as I want and more polite.
 I'd like a cup of coffee, please.
 We'd like some apples, please.
When putting an infinitive after would like, we use it with to.
 We 'd like to have it, please.
 Would you like to go around the world?
Very often we use would you like for an offer.
 Would you like some more coffee?
 And the answer is: Yes, please. or Yes, I'd love to. or No, thanks.


Please feel the difference in the following sentences.
 I like spending time with my friends. It means that I often spend time with my friends and I like it.
 I 'd like to spend time with my friends. It means that I don't often spend time with them and would like to visit them.
You see that we use like + gerunds when talking about general likes or dislikes and we use would like to + infinitive when talking about particular wishes in the future, about something we are going to do once or may be a few times.
Some other phrases with similar patterns.
 I hope to get a good mark in English.  But: I hope getting only good marks in English.
 I intend to buy a new laptop.  But: I intend buying only new hardware.

• Indirect / reported speech
Please compare direct and reported speech:
Mike is saying 'We have a nice day today.'  Direct speech.
Mike said they had a nice day that day.  Reported speech.

We use reported/indirect speech when we want to say what someone said some time ago.
Of course, even in that case, we can use direct speech.  I met Mike and he told me 'We have a nice day today.'

When using indirect speech, we usually use past tenses in the main clause of the sentence.
I told her that I was going to the cinema.
John answered that he had enough money to rent that house.

Now, let's talk about how we change tenses when changing direct into reported speech.
We change present forms into past forms in reported speech.
I said 'The weather is terrible.' Direct speech.  I said that the weather was terrible. Indirect speech.
He told us 'I'm going to visit my relatives in the evening.' Direct speech.  He told us that he was going to visit his relatives that evening. Indirect speech.
He said 'I have lost all my money in a market crash.' Direct speech.  He said that he had lost all his money in a market crash. Indirect speech.
Anna told us 'I will go to university.' Direct speech.  Anna told us that she would go to university. Indirect speech.

When having past simple in direct speech, it's up to you whether to change it or not in past perfect.
Anna told us 'I visited Moscow two years ago.' Direct speech.  Anna told us that she visited Moscow two years before. or - Anna told us that she had visited Moscow two years before. Indirect speech.

But it's not always necessary to change tenses in reported speech.
Max said 'London is the best city in the world.' Direct speech.  Max said that London is the best city in the world. Indirect speech. We don't change present into past as Max still thinks about London as the best city, he hasn't changed his mind.

Indirect orders and requests. In such cases we usually use infinitives in reported speech.
Paul shouted us 'Stop running, we are late anyway.' Direct speech.  Paul shouted us to stop running as we were late anyway. Reported speech.
Our teacher told us 'Please, close your books and go home.' Direct speech.  Our teacher told us to close our books and go home. Reported speech.
'Please, don't open the door,' my friend said. Direct speech.  My friend said do not open the door. Reported speech.

Indirect questions.

With special questions we also change tenses as usual and also change interrogative into a positive form of the verb.
He asked 'What are you reading?' Direct speech.  He asked what I was reading. Reported speech.
He asked 'Where do you go every morning?' Direct speech.  He asked where I went every morning. Reported speech.
He asked 'When did you see our teacher?' Direct speech.  He asked when I saw / had seen our teacher. Reported speech.

With general questions we change tenses as usual and also change interrogative into a positive form of the verb, plus we add if, whether to join two parts of the sentence.
He asked 'Do you listen to the radio every morning?' Direct speech.  He asked whether I listened to the radio every morning. Reported speech.
Mum asked 'Have you done your homework?' Direct speech.  Mum asked if I had done my homework. Reported speech.

Adverbial modifiers of time.
We have to replace them when changing direct into reported speech.
He asked 'What are you doing today?' Direct speech.  He asked what I was doing that day. Reported speech.
He asked 'What were you doing yesterday?' Direct speech.  He asked what I was doing the day before. Reported speech.
He said 'We are buying a new car tomorrow.' Direct speech.  He said that they were buying a new car the next day. Reported speech.
She said 'I want this ice-cream.' Direct speech.  She said that she wanted that ice-cream. Reported speech.
She said 'I don't like these trainers.' Direct speech.  She said that she didn't like those trainers. Reported speech.
Arthur was standing near a small countryside house and said 'I was born here.' Direct speech.  Arthur was standing near a small countryside house and said that he was born there. Reported speech.
She said 'I was in London last month/year.' Direct speech.  She said that she was in London the month / year before. Reported speech.
She said 'I will be in Moscow next Monday.' Direct speech.  She said that she would be in Moscow the following Monday. Reported speech.

• Infinitives.
We don't use to with infinitives in some cases.
After modal verbs.  I can help you.  We must go.
After verbs to let and to make.  Let me help you.  He makes me quit our company.
After verbs describing feelings: to hear, to see, to feel, etc.  She saw him steal from the local shop.  I heard her say that phrase.  I didn't feel him stand behind me.
After expressions: I would rather... and you had better...  I would rather help him with the purchase of a car.  You had better stop wasting all the money.

Types of infinitives.

Indefinite active.  I'm happy to read books.  It means that I always like to read them.
Indefinite passive.  I'm happy to be told stories.  It means that I'm happy every time when someone tells me a story.

Continuous active.  I'm happy to be helping you.  It means that I'm happy now helping you.
Continuous passive.  Not used.

Perfect active.  I'm happy to have met him.  It means that I'm happy that I have finally met him.
Perfect passive.  I'm glad to have been warned about that danger.  It means that I'm glad that somebody has warned me about a danger.

Perfect continuous active.  I'm happy to have been staying here.  It means that I'm happy to be there for some time and I'm still there.
Perfect continuous passive.  Not used.

• Participles.
Just feel the difference between:
Present participles.  Doing, reading, running, etc.
 Reading a book, he always forgets about his homework.  He always forgets about his homework while he is reading a book.
Past participles.  Done, written, missed, etc.
 The film, missed yesterday, is really good.  We missed a film yesterday, may be, we were short in time.

Let's talk now about different forms of participles.

Present active participle.  He's always happy while meeting his old friend.
Present passive participle.  He doesn't like being watched.

Past active participle.  Not used.
Past passive participle.  The stolen idea has become a problem for the company.

Perfect active participle.  Having done the project, he could move to the country side for a couple of weeks.
Perfect passive participle.  Having been failed, the project couldn't move any longer.

Also I want to pay attention to so called Nominative Absolute Participial Construction. It is a combination of a noun or a pronoun with participle. They could be Present participles or Past participles. Just look at some examples:
Mike being very cold, so I just left.
It being very early, but she got up.
Her story told, she looked at him.
Weather permitting, I'll visit my parents tomorrow.
The agreement having been reached, they proceeded with some smaller details.


Mixed Grammar (with audio).

• Grammar terms.
Noun countable.
 a dog, a table, a player, cats, friends...
Noun uncountable.
 money, rice, milk, bread, weather...
Article indefinite.
 a dog, a table, a player, an orange, an elephant...
Article definite.
 The shop where I go every day...
Preposition.
 He's from London. He usually gets up at seven o'clock.
Pronoun.
 We live in a small town.
 Mike is always friendly with us.
Adjective.
 A young boy, strong coffee, nice weather...
Possessive adjective.
 My book, their house...
Possessive pronoun.
 That's mine.
 Don't take that bag. It's hers.
Adverb.
 You drive too fast.
 John is never late for classes.
 I hope to finish my project today.
Main verb.
 They go for a walk every evening.
 How do you spell your name?
 We have finally reached our destination.
Auxiliary verb.
 Mike is going to visit his mum.
 Have you got some money?
 Does he know the way back home?
Modal verb.
 We must finish this project, otherwise we gonna loose our jobs.
 Could you help me, please?
 It might be a nice party.

• Question words
What?
We use it to ask about a thing.
 What is it on the table?
 What is your name?
Which?
We also use it to ask about a thing. But we use it when we only have a few answers.
 Which is your pencil, blue or black?
In case of what we have an unlimited number of answers. What is your name?
When?
We use it to ask about a time.
 When are you going to the cinema?
Where?
We use it to ask about a place.
 Where do you live?
Who?
We use it to ask about a person.
 Who is that girl over there?
How?
We use it to ask about the way you do something.
 How do you get there?
How far?
We use it to ask about the distance to some object.
 How far is it from here to the nearest bank, please?
Why?
We use it to ask about the reason you do something.
 Why does he always come here on Sunday?
How long?
We use it to ask about a period of time you do something.
 How long does it take you to get to school?
How often?
We use it to ask about the number of times you do something.
 How often do you go the cinema?
How much?
We use it to ask about the cost of something and also with uncountable nouns.
 How much does this dress cost?
 How much sugar to you add to your tea?
How many?
We use it with countable nouns.
 How many books have you got in your bag?

• Comparative and superlative adjectives

Short adjectives (one-syllable and two-syllable ending in -y)
Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
old	older	the oldest
short	shorter	the shortest
ugly	uglier	the ugliest
Longer adjectives
Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
attractive	more attractive	the most attractive
polite	more polite	the most polite
Irregular adjectives
Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	the best
bad	worse	the worst
far	farther/further	the farthest/furthest


We use comparatives to compare two people, places or things.
 Mike is older than Sarah.
We use superlatives to compare more than two people, places or things. Quite often we name the group of people or things after adjectives when using superlatives, like: in our class, in the world, in the team, of my colleagues...
 Nick is the strongest athlete in our team.
If there is no difference between people or things, we use as... as.
 Moscow is as exited as Saint Petersburg.
But if there is a difference between people or things, we use not as... as.
 This book isn't as good as the previous one.
Some other prepositions in comparative phrases.
 This bag is very similar to mine.
 Your watch is absolutely different from mine.
 My sister looks like an alien after changing her hairstyle.
 His bike is the same as mine.
 Joanna is the smartest kid in our family.


Spelling rules.
Most short adjectives ad -er, -est: strong, stronger, the strongest.
Short adjectives ending in -e ad -r, -st: nice, nicer, the nicest.
Short adjectives ending in one vowel plus one consonant double the final consonant: fat, fatter, the fattest.
Short adjectives ending in -y change it into -i: funny, funnier, the fanniest.
We usually change some two-syllable adjectives: clever, gentle, simple, quiet and some others as short adjectives: cleverer, the simplest and etc.

Comparing nouns.
You could compare nouns using more, the most, less, the least:
 Alex has the most books in his bag.
 Elizabeth knows more interesting stories than Helen.
 I have less time left than my colleague to finish my task.
 Today Graham has earned the least money.

• Adjectives: word order.
When using two and more adjectives we gonna follow some rules.
First let me introduce some types of adjectives.
Fact adjectives give us information about size, age, colour etc. of the object. Some examples: old, large, tall, wooden, blue...
Opinion adjectives tell us what we think of the object/person. Some examples: nice, interesting, tasty, beautiful, ugly...
In sentences opinion adjectives go before fact adjectives.
 A nice tall man.
 Delicious Italian pizza.
 An interesting old movie.
When we have more than one fact adjective, it's a good idea to follow these rules.
 1 - size, 2 - age, 3 - colour, 4 - where from, 5 - made off.
 a large old grey French wooden chest
 a new Italian violin
 a big new German van
 an old iron axe
Adjectives of size and length (big, small, short, long etc.) we usually put in front of adjectives of shape and width (round, fat, thin, wide etc.).
 a big fat man
 a tall slim girl
When having two colour adjectives, we use and between them.
 a blue and red balloon
 a white, blue and green kite

• this, that, these, those
We use this (singular) and these (plural) to talk about things near us.
 This tea tastes awful.
 These books are really interesting.
 What is this in your bag?
 What are these on the table?
We use that (singular) and those (plural) to talk about things in the distance.
 That man over there looks suspicious.
 Those dresses do not fit you.
 What is that on the front seat? It's my new bag.
 What are those?. I'm not sure, can't see from here. May be they are some newspapers.

• Subject, possessive and object pronouns

Subject pronouns	Possessive adjectives	Possessive pronouns	Object pronouns
I	my	mine	me
you	your	yours	you
he	his	his	him
she	her	hers	her
it	its	its	it
we	our	ours	us
they	their	theirs	them


We use pronouns and possessive adjectives to replace nouns.
 Mike eats apples because he likes them.
Subject pronouns come before the verb.
 He lives near the local shop.
 We like this ice cream.
Possessive adjectives always come with a noun.
 Our daughter has been recently married.
 Their car is very expensive.
Possessive pronouns come without a noun.
 I'm reading my book and Joanna is reading hers.
 Everything in this house is ours.
Whose ...?
Whose is the possessive form of the pronoun who.
 Whose is this bag? or: Whose bag is this?
 Whose is that car? or: Whose car is that?
 Whose are those books? or: Whose books are those?

• Possessive 's
Possessive forms show a relationship of belonging between different things or people.
To form the possessive we add 's to the noun.
We use 's for names and singular nouns.
 Tom's car is rather expensive.
 That girl's dress is really nice.
We use s' for plural nouns ending in s.
 Those boys' school is the best in the area.
 Our daughters' books are on the shelf.
But we use 's for irregular plurals not ending in s.
 Children's toys are scattered throughout the room.

• Plurals: regular and irregular nouns

Most nouns just accept +s in plurals
singlular	plurals
orange	oranges
pencil	pencils
Nouns ending in -s, -ch, -sh, -ss, -x, -z accept +es in plurals
singlular	plurals
octopus	octopuses
brush	brushes
sandwich	sandwiches
Nouns ending in y accept +ies in plurals after dropping y
singlular	plurals
party	parties
nationality	nationalities
For nouns ending in vowel+y just add +s in plurals
singlular	plurals
toy	toys
day	days
For nouns ending in -o we add +es in plurals
singlular	plurals
potato	potatoes
hero	heroes
But there are some exceptions
singlular	plurals
piano	pianos
photo	photos
There are some irregular nouns
singlular	plurals
man	men
woman	women
goose	geese
child	children
person	people
tooth	teeth
mouse	mice
sheep	sheep
knife	knives
foot	feet
ox	oxen
fish	fish
deer	deer
aircraft	aircraft
series	series
species	species

• Cardinal and ordinal numbers

Cardinal		Ordinal
1	one	1st	first
2	two	2nd	second
3	three	3rd	third
4	four	4th	fourth
5	five	5th	fifth
6	six	6th	sixth
7	seven	7th	seventh
8	eight	8th	eighth
9	nine	9th	ninth
10	ten	10th	tenth
11	eleven	11th	eleventh
12	twelve	12th	twelfth
13	thirteen	13th	thirteenth
14	fourteen	14th	fourteenth
15	fifteen	15th	fifteenth
16	sixteen	16th	sixteenth
17	seventeen	17th	seventeenth
18	eighteen	18th	eighteenth
19	nineteen	19th	nineteenth
20	twenty	20th	twentieth
21	twenty-one	21st	twenty-first
22	twenty-two	22nd	twenty-second
23	twenty-three	23rd	twenty-third
...	...	...	...
30	thirty	30th	thirtieth
31	thirty-one	31st	thirty-first
32	thirty-two	32nd	thirty-second
33	thirty-three	33rd	thirty-third
...	...	...	...
40	forty	40th	fortieth
50	fifty	50th	fiftieth
60	sixty	60th	sixtieth
70	seventy	70th	seventieth
80	eighty	80th	eightieth
90	ninety	90th	ninetieth
100	one hundred	100th	hundredth
200	two hundred	200th	two hundredth
300	three hundred	300th	three hundredth
351	three hundred and fifty-one	351st	three hundred and fifty-first
...	...	...	...
1000	one thousand	1000th	thousandth
2000	two thousand	2000th	two thousandth
2461	two thousand four hundred and sixty-one	2461st	two thousand and sixty-first
...	...	...	...
1,000,000	one million	1,000,000th	millionth
...	...	...	...
1,000,000,000	one billion	1,000,000,000th	billionth


Cardinal number answers a question "How many?"
 There are six books in my school bag.
Ordinal number says the position of something in a list/raw. Usually we use ordinal numbers with the definite article in front of them.
 My friend is the second one in the raw.
There is also a concept of Nominal number. It's only used as a name or to identify something/somebody.
 This is door "5".
 That guy near the gate has number "5" on his t-shirt.

• Adverbs of frequency

0% never

sometimes

50% often

usually

100% always

These adverbs usually come before the main verb.
 She usually writes a lot of letters at work.
 Mike doesn't often have lunch at school.
 She never shouts at kids.
 We always have dinner together in the evening.
 Michael sometimes visits his granny on Sundays.
But they come after the verb "to be".
 He's never late for school.
We can also put sometimes and usually at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
 Sometimes we visit our friends in Scotland. or: We visit our friends in Scotland sometimes.
 Usually Masha buys two loaves of bread. or: Masha buys two loaves of bread usually.
We don't use never and always at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
Not: Never I do this job in the morning.
Not: Mike has two sandwiches in the morning always.
Some other phrases:
 every week
 once/twice a month
 three/more times a year
We use them either at the end (preferred) or at the beginning of the sentence:
 We usually go to the seaside twice a year.
 Every month I visit my granny.

• Prepositions, examples of use
This is a photo of my friend.
Eating a lot of fruit is good for you.
John is at home. His parents are at work.
Mike is at school.
Masha is in New York. She studies there. She's in a class with ten other students.
We live in a flat with two Russian boys.
Our garden is lovely in the snow.
Our friends live in Hong Kong.
John likes reading in his free time.
In the morning we usually have full English breakfast.
In our family a nanny looks after kids.
I like going for a walk after a busy day.
Get on the tram.
Get off the bus.
The Smith live on an island in the east of Indonesia.
My mum collects her mail from the local post office.
Our company delivers soft drinks to all local shops.
I usually drive the kids to school.
In our family we go to bed at around midnight.
In our family everybody likes listening to music.
He speaks to people on his radio.
My sister's married to a Russian.
This coffee is for you.
I'll make dinner for you.
Mike is a journalist, he works and writes for a local newspaper.
My sister works as a decorator.
They came to Scotland by ferry.
Now it's about 10.15.

I never play computer games on weekdays.
Mike often visits his gran on Saturday mornings.
She usually does shopping on Friday evenings.
I usually go on holiday in August.
My best friend lives on the next block.
My baby sister likes watching cartoons on television.
I usually stay home at weekends.
My wife always gets up at seven o'clock.
I never get up early in the morning if I don't need to go to work.
My sister spends a lot of time in front of her TV set in the evening.
That picture was taken in (the) late autumn.
This is the most expensive hotel in the world.
The exit is at the top/bottom of the steps.
You could see a few newspapers under the table.
There is a photo on the television.
There are a few posters on the walls.
The local supermarket is on the right, opposite the cinema.
The local post office is next to the HSBC bank.
The tram stop is near the square.
There is a coffee machine in front of the pharmacy.
He was born in Germany in 1941.
Nick was at the party yesterday evening.
Yesterday there was a party at my house.
Every time I talk to you, you ask a lot of questions.
My business parther wants to sell his Jaguar for $15,000.
Every evening he usually reads for for two hours until bedtime.
Mike always thinks about his family.
He was injured in a car crash.
I'm tired of his comments.
He's not afraid of hard work.
Sailing is the love of all his life.
Who is the letter from?
I usually work from 9am till 6pm.

There is an interesting show on television this afternoon.
She's on her mobile.
We talked to John for more than an hour on the phone.
I always look for information on the internet.
Everybody laughed at his joke.
Somebody is knocking at the door.
It was the first day of May.
I like books by Agatha Christie.
Joanna always helps Miguel with his homework.
Our holiday home is 100 metres from the river Danube.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
I spend a lot of time on the banks of the river Thames.
Eugene is getting out of his garage.
We are driving along the road.
We walked past the cinema.
We've just passed over the bridge.
She walked up/down the hill.
The girl went across the road.
Emily couldn't get through the hedge.
The dog jumped into the pond.
Enid spends a lot of time in bed.
She likes walls painted in beige.
There's a boy with red hair.
I'm looking for a new pair of jeans.
We often pay by credit card.
Nowadays we don't often pay in cash.
Sophia will be a university student in two years time.
Alexander is not interested in computing.
He's really good at maths.
She's afraid of flying.
What's the weather like today?
What's on TV now?
There's a news program on Channel 5.
What's on at the local cinema today?
What are you expecting to happen at the end of your journey?
What's the article about?
Our train leaves from platform 7.

• Prepositions of place.

in front of	on
next to	behind
opposite	under
between	in



• Prepositions in, at, on (place).
We use in when talking about a confined space or a limited area.
 I met John in his living room.
 It's hard to find anything in that huge building.
 Your new iMac is in this nice box.
 I play a lot with the kids in our local garden.
 She was born in a town called Jabinka.
 There are lots of opportunities for young people in our country.
Please study when we use at.
 I see Mike standing at the local bus stop.
 She turned left at the end of the street.
 Just turn right at the shop and go straight two more blocks.
 A total stranger was standing at the door.
 First he looked at the top and then at the bottom of the page.
We use on when talking about objects located on various surfaces.
 I noticed a new chandelier on the ceiling.
 A carpet on the floor was very ugly.
 I liked most posters on the walls of her room.
 On the door there was a notice "Do not disturb, please".
 A few books lay on the table.
 We wanted a huge party on an island.
 The required story began on page 27.
 She noticed a mosquito on her nose.

We also use in in these situations.
 We all were standing in a line.
 I could see ten people in a queue.
 There was nobody in the street.
 I noticed my sister in that photograph.
 I looked at myself in the mirror and gasped.
 The Sun was high in the sky.
 Apple brand is one of the most famous in the world.
 You can find this info in the book on the table if you like.
 There was and amazing article in a local paper.
We also use on in these situations.
 I thought that Mike was on the right of Jill, but he was on the left.
 My flat is on the first floor.
 It's hard to find my tiny village on a map.
 She always checks prices on the menu.
 I noticed his name on the list.
 Life on a farm is not for me.
 St. Petersburg is on the river Neva.
 There are a lot of amazing places on the north coast of our country.
 I met my teacher on the way home.

Be careful in these situations.
 One of the chairs was in the corner of her room.
 We met at/on the corner of Oxford and Bond Street.
 I was sitting in the front of the car, and my wife in the back.
 We decided to book tickets at the front of the cinema.
 She was standing at the back of the room and I hardly noticed her.
 He always signs on the back of every letter he mails.
 I'm still in bed.
 Anita is still in hospital after a car accident.
 He's a thief, he has spent in prison half of his life.
 My mum is at work, but my dad is at home.
 I'm sitting at the table.
 The ship crew spent 30 days at sea.
 but: We could see some dolphins swimming and jumping in the sea.
We usually use at when talking about where the event takes place.
 The birthday party was at the local restaurant.
 Bob Dylan performed at the Royal Albert Hall.
 First we met Alan at the railway station and then Monica at the airport.
 She was waiting for us at Bob's house.
 I started panicking at the doctor's.
 Last evening we spent at the cinema.
 but: It was really hot in the cinema.
Talking about cities and towns.
 He lives all his life in Birmingham.
 but: The train stopped at Birmingham.
Transport.
 I'm riding on my bike.
 She's on a bus at the moment.  The same with on a plane, on a train, on a horse.
 but: He's in a car at the moment, he's driving to Bristol.
 He likes riding in a taxi.

• Other uses: to, on, in, at, into.
We use to when we talk about somebody or something moving to some place.
 Mike goes to school every morning.
 We don't often go to the bank nowadays, we can do everything on-line.
 After the court hearings he was sent back to prison.
 But: I'm going home. We don't use to in front of home.
We also use to after the verb to be in present/past perfect.
 He's been to London twice.
 I've never been to Moscow.
We use to after the verb to get.
 He finally got to that village.
 He gets to work by car, it's cheaper than by public transport.
We use in, at after the verb to arrive.
 We arrived in London early in the morning.
 We arrived at the concert just in time.  We are talking here about some places, buildings, events, etc., not cities or countries.
We use at in front of home when just talking where we are, no movement.
 I spent the whole evening at home.
 We decided to stay at home as it was heavily raining outside.
We use into when talking about getting inside some buildings or objects.
 Get into the car, please.
 A bat flew into the room through the window.
 But: I entered the building through the main entrance.
 But: We got out of the taxi near our local shop.
We say get on/off a bus/a plane/etc.
 She has to get off the train at the next station.
 He got on the plane just in time.

On vacation, on holiday, etc.
 I'm on holiday till the end of August.
 I've never been on a cruise to Venice.
 He's going on a trip to Jamaica.
 but: We have chosen Egypt for a holiday next month.
On the radio, on television, on the phone, on a diet, on strike, on fire, on purpose, on the whole.
 In the morning I always listen to the latest news on the radio.
 He doesn't like talking on the phone, he prefers meeting people.
 She's been on a diet more than one month, she has lost fifteen pounds.
 The railway company has been on strike five days, it's hard to get anywhere in the country.
 We have occasional tiffs, but on the whole we are good friends.
 But: by mistake, by accident, by chance:  I bought that camera by mistake.
In the sun, in the rain, in the dark, in the shade, in nice weather, etc.
 The air was chilly, and it wasn't hot to sit in the sun.
 He never goes out in bad weather.
To write in pencil, in pen, in biro, etc.
 People started writing in biro not so long ago.  In biro - means in ballpoint pen, Byro - it's the name of the person who invented it.
 I always write in pencil.
In capital letters, in words, etc.
 The letter was written in capital letters.
Payments: cash, credit card, cheque.
 I paid the bill in cash.
 Nowadays shops prefer payments by credit cards.
 Sometimes I pay by cheque, supported by my credit card.
To fall in love.
 Recently he fell in love with Julia.
 She's in love with Mike.
In somebody's opinion.
 In my opinion this is the best place in the world.
 In Lucy's opinion it's the worst movie, we have ever seen.
At the age of..., at a temperature of... etc.
 Water freezes at a temperature of zero degrees Celsius.
 I was driving at a speed of 130 km per hour.

• Preposition "by".
We use by to explain the way we do something.
 I've just sent a letter by mail.
 In our project everything has been done by hand.
 I prefer payments by credit card.  But: in cash.
In such expressions we don't use articles in front of nouns.
We use by to talk how we travel.
By car, by train, by coach, by ship, etc. and by road, by air, by sea, by rail, etc.
 People in Moscow travel a lot by underground.
 I hate travelling by bus.
But:  I usually go to work on foot.
We use by when something has been done by somebody/something.
 I've never been bitten by a snake.
 This singer is adored by millions.
 The door was finally open by John with a special key.
Some other uses.
 This novel by Tolstoy is really heartbreaking.
 We have marvelled the paintings by Aivazovsky.
 Please stand by me.
 The painting is on the wall by the door.
 His salary has increased by 200 roubles.
 It was a long jump competition. Enid won by 15 centimetres.

• Time phrases with: at, on, in
at
We use at with time phrases:
 at 13.15, at five o'clock.
We use at with some periods of time longer than one day (usually 2-3 days):
 at Christmas, at Easter, at the weekend.
on
We use on with day/date phrases:
 on Tuesday, on the 3rd of July.
in
We use in with seasons, months, years, decades, centuries:
 in spring, in August, in 2005, in the last decade of the previous century, in the eighteenth century.

• On time, too late, in time, at/in the end, at first
When we say something is gonna happen on time, it means that something happens at the time planned:
 The taxi arrived exactly on time.  It was not early, not late. Let's say, it arrived exactly at 7.15.
 The performance at that theatre always starts on time. Please, don't be late.  Not early, not late.
 Late is the opposite of on time. He's always late, he never comes on time.
In time means that something happens with some reserve of time or without, but everybody is happy about it.
 I came to dinner in time, I could even talk a bit with my partner.
 I guess my letter will be delivered in time.  Or I will have some troubles.
 We managed to help him just in time, he almost fainted.  It was a danger of being late, but we managed. We had no time to spare.
Too late is the opposite of in time.
 We came too late, the ship had departed.
At the end of something. At the beginning of something.
 They had a lot of applause at the end of the performance.
 At the end of their long journey, they finally stumbled upon that old barn.
 At the beginning of the play, he was the only one on stage.
In the end versus at first.
In the end means that you were doing or experienced something for a long time, and then some decision was finally made.
 After having struggled for two years, we built it in the end.
 In the end he was fed up with her comments and just left.
At first refers to the first steps you have to do in some situation, and it's the opposite of in the end.
 At first he didn't know what to say but she motivated him gently.

• Countable and uncountable nouns.
Most nouns are countable, they refer to something that can be counted. Such nouns are preceded by an indefinite article in the singular.
 an egg, twelve eggs
 a car, two cars
 a chair, four chairs
Some nouns are uncountable, they do not typically refer to things that can be counted and they don't regularly have a plural form. They aren't preceded by an indefinite article.
 milk, sugar, bread. Not a milk, a sugar, a bread
Some nouns are both.
 John likes ice-cream. Two ice-creams, please.
 This frame is made of iron. There are two new irons in this home.
 I need a lot of time to do my homework. Mike has visited Paris three times.
We use How many... ? with countable nouns.
 How many books have you got in your bag?
We use How much... ? with uncountable nouns.
 Now much money is left?

• Relative pronouns who, whose, which, that
Relative clauses give us some extra information about nouns.
Just mind that a clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb, that's simple.
We use who and whose in relative clauses when talking about people:
 Mike is a man who lives next door.
 I know one guy whose name is Robert.
We use which and that in relative clauses when talking about animals and things:
 My sister has got a dog which is very small.
 I know some really nice hotels that are situated not far from the city centre.
Usually pronoun that is related to a few things and pronoun which to only one.

• Describing and asking about people
Let's begin with some questions.
What does she/he look like? We use this question to ask about someone's physical appearance.
 What does your brother look like? I hope, I'm gonna recognize him.  He's quite short, fair haired and he's wearing dark glasses.
 What does your brother look like? I hope, I'm gonna recognize him.
How is she/he...? We use this question to ask about someone's health.
 How's your sister?  She's feeling much better now, thanks. I hope she'll be back home in a few days.
We also use the same question to ask about someone's school, trip, work etc.
 How was your trip to China?  Oh, it was fantastic.
 How was your work today?  Oh, terrible. I had no time even for a cup of coffee.
What's he/she like? We use this question when asking about someone's personality, not their appearance.
 What's your new boss like?  I guess, he's very experienced and rather friendly.
 Not: What's your new boss like?  He's like very friendly. We do not use like in the answers to such questions.
Quite often when asking about people, we use the verb to be.
 How old are you?  I'm nearly forty.
 How tall is your sister?  She's quite short, only one meter fifty.
 What colour are his eyes?  Hazel.
And we use have got when asking about people's eyes, hair, moustache, glasses, etc.
 Has she got brown hair?  Yes, she has.
 Has he got a moustache?  No, he hasn't, only a short beard.

• Using articles: a/an, the
A and an
We use a and an when we mention something for the first time.
We use them before singular countable nouns.
 I saw a really nice table in our local shop.
We use them before the name of a job.
 My sister is a doctor.
But we have to use the when we mention something again.
 I saw a really nice table in our local shop. But the table is very expensive for us.
We use a before consonant sounds:  a book, a monkey, a lamp.
We use an before vowel sounds:  an orange balloon, an order, an article.
Also we use an when the word starts with letter h which isn't pronounced:  an hour, an honest guy.


The
We use the before singular nouns that we mentioned earlier:
 I saw a big bird in the mountains. The bird was an owl.
We use the before nouns (singular, plural or uncountable) when we know exactly what or who we mention and are talking about:
 Jane likes the earrings I bought yesterday.
 Please don't forget to give the kids some pocket money. We are talking about our kids.
 Please buy some milk when passing the corner shop. It's our local shop.
We use the when there is only one of something:  the sky, the Sun, the Moon, the Pope.
 We don't see the Moon in the sky today because there are to many clouds.
We use the with superlative forms:
 Mark is the best friend I know.
We use the in a lot of expressions with of:
 In the middle of the lecture.
 In the centre of the picture.
 At the end of my journey.
We use the with country names that are plural and with countries that are republics or unions:
 The United States, The Netherlands, The Russian Federation.
We use the with the names of rivers, oceans, seas, mountain ranges:
 The Thames, The Pacific Ocean, The Black Sea, The Alps.
We use the with most phrases of position and place:
 at the bottom, in the middle, on the right, at the cinema, at the theatre, in the east, on the cost, on the border.
We use the when talking about parts of the day:
 in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.


Zero article
We do not use the with the names of most countries:
 Germany, France, Estonia, Malta.
We do not use the with the names of continents:
 Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North America.
We do not use the with the names of cities:
 Moscow, London, Boston, New York.
We do not use the with the names of roads/streets:
 Baker Street, Holloway Road, Camden Road.
We do not use the with the names of single lakes and mountains:
 Mount Everest, Lake Ontario, Mount K2.
We do not use the with the names of people:
 American people support their president.
We do not use the in geographical phrases like these:
 in eastern Russia, in south-east Germany, etc.
We do not use the with exact times, days and months:
 at five o'clock, on Monday, in April.
We do not use the in some phrases of place:
 at work, at home, in bed, at sea, at hospital.
We do not use the before plural and uncountable nouns when talking about people or things in general:
 Milk is what I like.
 Fruit is very good for small kids.
 Germans are very well educated people.
Some other phrases without the:
 at night, on holiday.

• Quantifiers with different nouns
some - it means an indefinite number/amount of something
We use it in positive sentences with plural countable and uncountable nouns.
 Some milk would be nice.
 I have noticed some sweets on the table.
We also use it in questions when we expect a positive answer.
 Have you bought some grapes, as we agreed earlier?
 Would you like some coffee, it's really nice?.
any
We use it in negative sentences before countable and uncountable nouns.
 We don't have any sugar left.
 Mike doesn't have any friends left in his home town, they all have fled the county because of unemployment.
We use it in questions when the expected answer could be yes or no.
 Have you got any milk left?
no
We use it with countable and uncountable nouns.
 They have no tickets left. Surprisingly all the tickets have been sold in two days.
 You can't say: We don't have no time left. We only use no with positive verbs. Correct: we have no time left.
a few - it means a small number of things
We use it in positive sentences and only with countable plural nouns.
 There are a few books left I need to buy for my study.
a lot of/lots of
We use it in positive sentences with countable plural nouns and uncountable nouns.
 There are a lot of really interesting places around my native village.
 Lots of items were sold very cheap at the insolvency auction.
much
We use it in questions and negative sentences with uncountable nouns.
 Have you got much time left today?
 They haven't spent much money there, as prices were high.
many
We use it in questions and negative sentences with countable nouns.
 Have you got many parcels undelivered?
 They haven't delivered many parcels on time.
too much and too many have a negative meaning: more than necessary/than right amount
 There aren't too many restaurants in the city centre.
 Too much money is spent on unnecessary things nowadays.
enough
We use it with countable and uncountable nouns in all types of sentences.
 They have enough funds to fulfil their project.
 Do we have enough time for a short break?
 They aren't smart enough to solve the problem. Not enough has a negative meaning.

• Punctuation: full stops, commas, colons, etc.
Let's talk about punctuation in English.
 Capital letters
We use capital letters at the beginning of sentences.
 John has just left home.
Also we use them at the beginning of proper nouns. What are proper nouns? They are: names of particular people, geographical places, things. Also nationalities, languages, days of the week, months of the year, public holidays.
 I met Mike on my way to the Sunday market.
 I've never been to Moscow.
 Very few people speak Mandarin in our office.
 In June we are refurbishing our flat.
 New Year's Eve is the most popular holiday in our country.
 My dream was to become a student at Oxford University.
 I'm currently reading a book about Titanic.
 At the weekends he goes to McDonald's.
 My close friend lives in Great Britain.
 The Pacific Ocean is the largest in the world.
 Our MD drives Toyota car.
 When visiting London I always go for a walk in Oxford Street.
Also we use capital letters for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays and music.
 In our family New York Times is very poular.
 This film is based on Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace.
 Shostakovich's Seventh Symphony was written in besieged Leningrad.

 Full stops (.)
We use full stops to mark the end of sentences.
We also use them for abbreviations.
 Dr. Martin. Prof. Johansen. etc.
We also use them in initials for personal names.
 B. A. Robertson.
We use full stops for decimal points.
 7.4 (seven point four)
With times we could use full stops or colons.
 I have to be at work by 9.45. (or 9:45)

 Commas (,)
Commas are used to separate a list of similar words or phrases.
 He put on the kitchen table onions, potatoes, cucumbers, tomatoes.
 She is a tall, fair-haired, smartly dressed girl.
Usually, there is no comma in front of and.
 Last year Mike visited Portugal, Spain and Morocco.
But in the United States we put a comma in front of and.
 I would like to visit Poland, Lithuania, and Belarus.
We put commas to mark phrases or single words, where the voice would pause slightly.
 He really wanted to buy that mobile. Unfortunately, he couldn't afford it.
 Mr. Cooper, our professor, was a bit late that morning.
Let's talk about clauses and how we use commas with them. What are clauses? Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and and a verb (this verb actually does something). There are different types of clauses. The main clause expresses a complete thought as a sentence or a part of it. A subordinate clause is dependent on the main clause and doesn't make sense on its own. An adverbial clause is a dependant clause made up of a group of words that acts as an adverb in a sentence, usually it answers the question of how, why, when or where.
We don’t normally use a comma when main clauses are separated by and, or, but, and both clauses have the same subject. But we normally use commas if clauses have different subjects.
 Julia was really rude and she didn't want to talk too much. The same subject.
 Julia was really rude, and I decided to leave her home. Different subjects.
We use commas if a subordinate clause comes before the main clause.
 If you are in troubles, we are ready to help you.
But we normally don't do it in short sentences.
 If you need help just call us.
We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses add some extra, not important information about the noun in the main sentence.
 Joanna, who is actually my neighbour, has won this competition.
We use commas for non-finite clauses. Such clauses are based on a to-infinitive or a participle. To say it more simply, the clause contains a verb that doesn't show tense or time.
 Mike, coming here on the regular basis, has finally found that house.
We don’t use commas to mark defining clauses.
 London is the city that was chosen to host the 2012 Olympic Games.
We normally use commas in tag questions and answers.
 You've been to the cinema today, haven't you? Yes, I have.
We use commas in yes-no answers.
 No, thanks. I've already got it.
We use commas to separate vocative markers.
 You have to do it yourself, John. Compare: John has to do it himself. A vocative expression indicates that John is being addressed.
We use commas to separate interjections. They are words or phrases expressing something in a sudden emotional and exclamatory way.
 Oh, you have finally done it!
We use commas in direct speech. Just check how we put them depending on whether the direct speech is at the beginning or the end of a sentence.
 Suzanne entered the room and said, 'We are having a meeting at five o'clock.'  Also it's possible: Suzanne entered the room and said: 'We are having a meeting at five o'clock.'
 'We are having a meeting at five o'clock,' said Suzanne.  In this case, we use a comma at the end of direct speech before closing quotes.
We use commas in numbers for thousands and millions.
 2,345,456

 Colons (:)
When introducing lists.
 He's bought different types of vegetables: potatoes, cucumbers, tomatoes, garlic, onions, cabbage.
When introducing different paragraphs inside the main topic.
 Moscow region: Life in Odintsovo.
When introducing direct speech.
 Mark entered and introduced his friend: 'Let me introduce my friend Michael.' You could also use a comma instead of a colon.
Quite often we use a colon between two sentences, when the second one explains why we need to do something in the first one.
 Please go to bed earlier tonight: you have to be at the airport by 5 a.m.
 Semi-colons (;)
In nowadays English semi-colons are not commonly used. Normally we use full stops. But when using them: they just separate two main clauses, two independent sentences.
 Sarah lives in South London; her boyfriend Nicholas rents a room in Camden Town.
 Quotation marks ('…' or "…")
In direct speech you could use either single or double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are more common.
 Helen just said, 'It was a wonderful journey.'  or  Helen just said, "It was a wonderful journey."
When using direct speech inside another direct speech, we use single quotation marks inside double quotation marks or vice versa.
 "It was a really nice dinner," Julia said, "Mark told us, 'I would like to come here again.'"
Single quotation marks are used to draw attention to a word when the meaning of the word is in doubt.
 I didn't trust his 'apology'.
We use quotation marks for names of books, newspapers, videos, CDs, etc.
 'Moscow News' is the newspaper published in English.
 Dashes and brackets
They are used similar to commas or semi-colons, but mostly in informal writing.
 Scarlett - the best student in our class - unexpectedly got a bad mark.
Brackets are used in a way similar to dashes. Also we use brackets around dates and page numbers.
 Pushkin (1799), may be the greatest Russian poet, was born in Moscow, as stated in his biography (pages 17-18).

• Both (of), either (of), neither (of)
It's important to understand that we use both, neither, either for two things.
 We didn't like either restaurant.  We are talking here about two restaurants.
 There are two libraries in our town. My friend visited neither of them.  Compare: There are a lot of libraries in our city. My friend visited none of them.
When using both, neither, either with of you need the, my, his, her, family's... etc. in front of a noun.
 Both of the local restaurants are posh.  You could also say: Both local restaurants are posh.  Of is not compulsory after both.
 Neither of my friends speak (speaks) Spanish.  After neither of... you could use a singular or a plural verb.
Also quite popular structures are: both of, neither of, either of with us, you, them.
 Both of us bought nice presents in Oxford Street.  You can's say: Both us...
 Either of them were really happy in Brighton.
 Neither of you deserves (deserve) this cake.
Usually we use both, neither, either with nouns. But it's also possible to use them alone.
 'Who's got the best mark?' 'Both.'
 'Did you meet John at a local restaurant or a cafe?' 'Neither. I met him in the library.'
 'Do you prefer milk or juice?' 'Either. I like them both.'

• Either ... or, neither ... nor
When acting as pronouns either ... or means 'one or the other, or both' and neither ... nor means 'none, no one, not either'. But usually we talk about two people or things.
Sentences with either ... or have positive meaning and with neither ... nor negative.
 From his accent I sensed that he was either English or Australian.
 I could have either milk or yoghurt, it didn't matter.
 Neither Mike nor Angela visited him at hospital.
 They had neither cash nor any credit card with them.
Be careful with double negatives when using neither ... nor.
 She didn't go neither to the cinema nor to the theatre that evening.  Right way is: She went neither to the cinema nor to the theatre that evening.
With singular subjects we use singular verbs, with plural subjects - plural verbs. When subjects are plural, we put the plural subject second and use plural verbs.
 Neither Angela nor her friends are going to stay with us.
 Either pepper or those funny spices could help my cooking.

• Little, a little, few, a few
We use quantifiers little and a little with uncountable nouns.
Just feel the difference when using them.
 I have little milk, I can't share it with you.  little means not much, almost nothing.
 I have a little milk, I could give you some.  a little means some, a small amount.
We use quantifiers few and a few with countable nouns.
Just feel the difference when using them.
 We have few spare parts, I guess not enough for the working shift.  few means not many, almost none.
 We have a few spare parts, may be even enough for the working shift.  a few means some, a small number.
We can use these quantifiers without nouns.
 Have you got any sugar, please? Yes, a little.
 Have you got any spare pencils, please? Yes, a few.
We don't normally use little and few without a noun.
It's possible to use a little as an adverb.
 I know him just a little.
Other uses of a little.
 He is feeling a little worse than yesterday.  With adverbs to modify them slightly.
 I'm feeling a little bit better today.  With bit and adjectives.

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Important links:

British Council website for people studying English. Click here.

BBC Learning English. Click here.

Learning English by learning programming. Make your own website. Click here.

IELTS website. Click here.

TED talks - watch and listen to the ideas worth spreading. Click here.

Euronews website - live broadcast. Click here.

BBC radio. Click here.

BBC One-minute News. Click here.

Food and Drink - Vocabulary. Shop online.

Household items and more - Vocabulary. Shop online.

Conversation Questions. Read.

Kids stories:

Little Red Riding Hood. Watch and Read

Goldilocks and the three bears. Watch and Read

Jack and the beanstalk. Watch and Read

The ugly duckling. Watch and Read